{"id":46291,"date":"2023-07-26T08:06:01","date_gmt":"2023-07-26T06:06:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/?p=46291"},"modified":"2023-07-26T09:12:45","modified_gmt":"2023-07-26T07:12:45","slug":"addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/","title":{"rendered":"Addressing Vulnerabilities in Federated Learning through Blockchain"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Federated learning allows a model to be learned from multiple participants without transferring the data to a central location. The approach promises to reduce privacy and latency risks but also has weaknesses such as data quality control and data security.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In this article, we propose integrating a voting protocol with a permissioned blockchain to address several federated learning vulnerabilities. We analyze the performance and robustness of the approach and discuss the results in a predictive maintenance use case. Basic knowledge of federated learning is assumed and can be, for example, looked up in <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/federated-learning-collaborative-training-part-1\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">this blog post<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><!--more--><\/p>\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_83 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\"><p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\"><\/p>\n<\/div><nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning\" >Vulnerabilities in federated learning<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#HyperFlow-Federated-learning-and-blockchain\" >HyperFlow: Federated learning and blockchain<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#HyperFlows-Phases\" >HyperFlow&#8217;s Phases<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#HyperFlow-against-federated-learning-vulnerabilities\" >HyperFlow against federated learning vulnerabilities<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Compromised-curator\" >Compromised curator<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Gradient-leakage\" >Gradient leakage<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Compromised-clients\" >Compromised clients<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Distributed-nature-of-federated-learning\" >Distributed nature of federated learning<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#HyperFlows-blockchain-resource-consumption\" >HyperFlows\u2019 blockchain resource consumption<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#HyperFlows-blockchain-cost\" >HyperFlows\u2019 blockchain cost<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blog\/addressing-vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning-through-blockchain\/#References\" >References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Vulnerabilities-in-federated-learning\"><\/span><strong>Vulnerabilities in federated learning<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Federated learning (FL) has not been as widely integrated into the machine learning community as other ground-breaking technologies because of its vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities of the FL approach can be divided into <strong>security<\/strong> and <strong>privacy<\/strong> concerns. Security deals with the correct behavior, integrity, and efficiency of the system against malicious external influences. Furthermore, privacy deals with restricting access and not disclosing data to unauthorized parties. Ideally, each component has access only to the information required to perform its operations. [1,2]<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The vulnerabilities of FL can be divided into six domains [1,3]:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Communication channel<\/strong>: Local and central models are constantly exchanged between clients and the curator. Eavesdroppers can intercept and exchange them for modified models. Another exploitation of this vulnerability is the use of other clients\u2019 models for malicious purposes.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Gradient leakage<\/strong>: Sensitive information and training data can be revealed through gradient updates during model training.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Compromised clients<\/strong> can change training parameters and poison the training data or the trained model to perform an attack on the curator.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>A compromised curator<\/strong> can inspect gradient updates from each client and manipulate them, as well as change the central model.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Aggregation algorithm<\/strong>: In the consequence of compromised participants, a non-robust aggregation algorithm aggregates all models without detecting abnormal updates. This could significantly impact the performance of the central model. Additionally, aggregating a well-performing model which contains a backdoor, would also introduce this backdoor into the central model.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Finally, the <strong>distributed nature of FL<\/strong> allows for collusion between compromised clients, attacks distributed over time, and clients to drop out, meaning clients leave in the middle of a training session.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"HyperFlow-Federated-learning-and-blockchain\"><\/span><strong>HyperFlow: Federated learning and blockchain<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To address some of the previously mentioned weaknesses of federated learning, Mugunthan et al. [4] propose the integration of the Ethereum smart contract platform, known as BlockFlow. Ethereum is a public blockchain, meaning it is accessible to everyone. This public nature poses a distrust for many use cases. Private blockchains, in turn, are only accessible to select users. In addition, permissioned blockchains are a mix of public and private blockchains that anyone can access, provided they receive permission from the administrators.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In this blog post, we apply the idea of BlockFlow to permission-required blockchains, namely the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain platform, and call this approach HyperFlow.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"HyperFlows-Phases\"><\/span>HyperFlow&#8217;s Phases<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">With the intention of unifying FL and blockchain and thus counteract certain weaknesses of FL, we define HyperFlow in six phases, which are also presented in Figure 1.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Client Readiness:<\/strong> Clients synchronize their local models with the central model.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Training:<\/strong> Each client trains a local model with its available data. The model is uploaded to the curator in the cloud, while a corresponding available URL and hash are published to the blockchain.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Validation:<\/strong> Each client obtains all local models and an availability score is computed for each model. The availability value indicates what proportion of clients were able to successfully obtain the model.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Evaluation:<\/strong> Models with a high availability score are evaluated by each client using their evaluation data. The evaluation metrics computed are encrypted and published to the blockchain.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Score decryption:<\/strong> The encryption key used for the computed metrics is provided through the blockchain.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>Aggregation:<\/strong> The evaluated models are aggregated by a weighted average. As weight for the aggregation, the median of the model\u2019s evaluation metrics is used. Models that perform poorly compared to the best-performing model in the current round are removed from the aggregation. This is done by a predefined threshold.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<figure id=\"attachment_46316\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-46316\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-46316 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperflow_phases-288x300.png\" alt=\"Figure 1: Overview of the phases in a HyperFlow federated learning round.\" width=\"500\" height=\"521\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperflow_phases-288x300.png 288w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperflow_phases-400x417.png 400w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperflow_phases-360x375.png 360w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperflow_phases.png 465w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-46316\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1: Overview of the phases in a HyperFlow federated learning round.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"HyperFlow-against-federated-learning-vulnerabilities\"><\/span><strong>HyperFlow against federated learning vulnerabilities<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Although models are encrypted and secure in the cloud, all client models are exposed to all other clients. Furthermore, the models\u2019 aggregation does not avoid the integration of unwanted capabilities to the central model. Hence, we leave the communication channel and aggregation algorithm as not addressed vulnerabilities. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the following, we discuss how HyperFlow addresses four of the six presented vulnerabilities of FL.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Compromised-curator\"><\/span><strong>Compromised curator<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HyperFlow addresses a compromised curator by \u201cdecentralizing\u201c the federated learning approach in a certain way. Each client has access to all models and aggregation scores and can compute its own central model. This is realized by storing local models in the cloud and sharing scores across the Hyperledger Fabric network. The hashes of the models published on the blockchain are used to verify the models. Additionally, the aggregation process of the central model is done by comparing the hashes of the central model across all clients.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Gradient-leakage\"><\/span><strong>Gradient leakage<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Differential privacy is a privacy-preserving mechanism for distributed-data processing systems. It preserves the statistical properties of the data while adding statistical noise to them. The privacy achieved can be quantified by the privacy budget spent, which is defined as the bound of how much two adjacent datasets differ. Adjacent datasets can be, for example, data sets that differ by one data point. Since a single data point from the training dataset should never be revealed, a smaller privacy budget can lead to higher privacy. [5]\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In an experiment, we use Keras&#8216; differential private optimizer to achieve privacy-compliant gradient updates. Specifically, we train a long-short term memory (LSTM) model [6-10] that predicts the remaining useful lifetime on NASA&#8217;s TurboFan Engine Degradation Simulation data set [11]. Details can be found in the related <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blockchain-basierte-abstimmung-zur-optimierung-von-vorausschauenden-wartungsmodellen-im-rahmen-des-foederierten-lernens\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">master thesis<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We evaluated the impact of the privacy budget on the performance of the central model over FL rounds with three, five and ten clients. The privacy budgets used are based on the works of Rahman et al. [12] and K. Wei et al. [13], and the results can be found in Figure 2. A slight increase in the central model\u2019s performance is seen in models trained with an increased privacy budget \\(\\epsilon\\) (lower privacy).<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_46314\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-46314\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-46314 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-300x232.png\" alt=\"Figure 2: Effect of privacy budgets e = 50, e = 60 and e = 100 on the central model\u2019s performance averaged over the four test subsets for a federated learning session containing (a) 3 clients, (b) 5 clients and (c) 10 clients.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"773\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-300x232.png 300w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-1024x792.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-768x594.png 768w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-400x310.png 400w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1-360x279.png 360w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/differential_privacy_effect-1.png 1282w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-46314\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2: Effect of privacy budgets e = 50, e = 60 and e = 100 on the central model\u2019s performance averaged over the four test subsets for a federated learning session containing (a) 3 clients, (b) 5 clients and (c) 10 clients.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Compromised-clients\"><\/span><strong>Compromised clients<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">We define compromised clients as participants that share local models which do not increase the central model\u2019s performance. For evaluation purposes, four out of ten clients are classified as malicious and collude with each other. Each malicious client gives a perfect evaluation and validation score to other malicious clients, while truthful clients receive the worst score of zero.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To show a non-robust aggregation of the central model, we have selected a low threshold of 0.3 and present the aggregation scores and the central model\u2019s performance in Figure 3. In Figure 3 (a), truthful clients achieve higher scores than malicious clients. Nonetheless, the scores of malicious clients are not zero, as they perform the same as the baseline when compared to the evaluation records available for truthful clients. Figure 3 (b) shows the performance of the central model in each round of federated learning. After the second round, the impact of malicious clients disrupts the training of the central model.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_46322\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-46322\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-46322 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1.png\" alt=\"Figure 3: (a) Aggregation scores for clients with a threshold of 0.3 and (b) Performance of the central model with colluding malicious clients.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"392\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1.png 1281w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1-300x118.png 300w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1-1024x401.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1-768x301.png 768w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1-400x157.png 400w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_low_threshhold-1-360x141.png 360w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-46322\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3: (a) Aggregation scores for clients with a threshold of 0.3 and (b) Performance of the central model with colluding malicious clients.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On the other hand, increasing the threshold to 0.5 sets the aggregation scores of malicious clients to zero. Only models that achieve at least half the score of the best model are considered. Figure 4 (a) shows the aggregation scores of truthful and malicious clients, confirming that malicious clients obtain an aggregation score of zero. The performance of the central model over the subsets of the NASA&#8217;s TurboFan Engine Degradation Simulation data set [11] is shown in Figure 4 (b). It shows that selecting well-defined parameters in HyperFlow makes the approach robust against a minority of compromised clients.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_46320\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-46320\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-46320 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1.png\" alt=\"Figure 4: (a) Aggregation scores for clients with a threshold of 0.5 and (b) Performance of the central model.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"392\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1.png 1281w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1-300x118.png 300w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1-1024x401.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1-768x301.png 768w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1-400x157.png 400w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/malicious_clients_high_threshhold-1-360x141.png 360w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-46320\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4: (a) Aggregation scores for clients with a threshold of 0.5 and (b) Performance of the central model.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Distributed-nature-of-federated-learning\"><\/span><strong>Distributed nature of federated learning<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The distributed nature of FL opens a door to time-distributed attacks and non-malicious failures. On the one hand, time-distributed attacks are attacks performed on the central model by redirecting the central model into a desired state over FL sessions. On the other hand, non-malicious failures are of heterogeneous nature. For instance, the upload and download of models is prone to network-connectivity failures. In addition, the presence of a bug or interruption in a client\u2019s training pipelines would not be identified by the other clients. Moreover, other failure sources, such as the training resource allocation, machine errors non-related to HyperFlow or power supply, would present challenges for the synchronization of clients over a FL round.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HyperFlow targets non-malicious failures by design, while the aggregation algorithm partly targets time-distributed attacks. Only time-distributed attacks which are measurable by the implemented metrics can be avoided as shown on the analysis of compromised clients. Non-malicious failures reflect as clients dropping-out mid of a FL round. HyperFlow targets these occurrences by setting requirements for the start of a FL session and the synchronization of clients over phases in an FL round. First, a predefined number of participants are required for the beginning of an FL session. Thereafter, each phase of the FL round waits until either a submission deadline is reached or a predefined percentage of clients have submitted their results. Finally, in case none of these conditions is met, the FL session is terminated. The central model is only updated in case the computed session\u2019s model is better-performing than the present central model.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"HyperFlows-blockchain-resource-consumption\"><\/span><strong>HyperFlows\u2019 blockchain resource consumption<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Hyperledger Fabric there are 4 main components: peer nodes, orderer nodes, the chaincode, and the certificate authority. Each HyperFlow client contains one of each component. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Figure 5 shows the average CPU consumption of each component for a network of three, five, and ten clients. Figure 5 (a) shows exponential increase of workload on peers by the linear increase of clients. This behavior can be seen in the CPU consumption curve of the peers when comparing the increase in consumption in a network with five clients to that of a network with ten clients. The peak of CPU usage for the five clients\u2019 curve is around 60 millicores, while the ten clients\u2019 curve has its peak of around 300 millicores. Figure 5 (b) shows orderers maintain a relatively low CPU consumption since they only package the transactions and forward them to the peer nodes. In the same way, Figure 5 (c) shows the CPU usage of chaincode components is relatively low and rarely surpasses the ten millicores. The certificate authority works to verify components belonging to a specific organization. This is done at the beginning of the blockchain\u2019s application. After that, as shown in Figure 5 (d), the workload of the certificate authority drops to below one millicore.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_46318\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-46318\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-46318 \" src=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1.png\" alt=\"Figure 5: Average CPU consumption per Fabric component.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"754\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1.png 1281w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1-300x226.png 300w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1-1024x772.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1-768x579.png 768w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1-400x302.png 400w, https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/wp-content\/uploads\/hyperledger_fabric_resource_consumption-1-360x271.png 360w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-46318\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5: Average CPU consumption per Fabric component.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"HyperFlows-blockchain-cost\"><\/span><strong>HyperFlows\u2019 blockchain cost<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Using the blockchain\u2019s resource consumption presented, we compare the blockchain costs of HyperFlow to BlockFlow. BlockFlow used a regression model to determine the cost of the Ethereum blockchain for their approach. It is measured in gas, which is defined as one nano Ether. To compute the cost of BlockFlow in relation to the number of clients participating (N) and the federated learning rounds taking place (R), we have\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\\(Cost_{BlockFlow} = Ether * gas(N, R) * 10^{-9}\\),<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">where we convert gas to Ether, the native Ethereum coin, and multiply it by the current price of Ether in euros.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, a permissioned blockchain such as Hyperledger Fabric only incurs the cost of running its components. We use the captured resource consumption to calculate the energy consumption of the implementation on a Raspberry Pi [14]. To calculate the blockchain costs of HyperFlow, we integrate the power consumption over time in a federated learning round and multiply it by the number of rounds (R), clients participating (N) and the energy cost in Euros (E), i.e.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\\(Cost_{HyperFlow} = E * N * R * \\int^{t_{round}}_{0}{P_{Pi}(u) dt}.\\)<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The subsequent calculations are based on a cost of \u20ac2,822.15 per Ether [15] and a cost of \u20ac0.2664 per kilowatt-hour [16]. We compare the blockchain costs for a federated learning session of ten clients and ten federated learning rounds for HyperFlow and BlockFlow. BlockFlow has blockchain costs of \u20ac1,508.29 while HyperFlow has costs of \u20ac7.81. This results in a blockchain cost of approximately 0.52% of the BlockFlow approach for the HyperFlow approach.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span><strong>Conclusion<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In this blog post, we proposed the integration of Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain into the Federated Learning process, called HyperFlow. We discussed how HyperFlow can counter some of the weaknesses of federated learning.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">First of all, we show that the curator\u2019s responsibilities can be distributed to the clients over a network using the mechanisms of a blockchain. The distributed ledger is used to reach a consensus over the distributed computations and actions available to clients given by a smart contract. Then, we address the gradient leakage vulnerability through the use of differential privacy and show that a slight increase in the central model\u2019s performance is seen in models trained with an increased privacy budget. Third, the collusion of compromised clients to disrupt the central model\u2019s performance is non-effective for a minority of compromised clients as a result of the evaluation round for clients\u2019 models. Last but not least, the vulnerabilities from the distributed nature of FL are reduced by the HyperFlow design and its aggregation algorithm.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In addition, the cost to run HyperFlow is much cheaper than the state-of-the art BlockFlow approach. This is especially because Hyperledger Fabric is a permissioned blockchain. Of course, this also means that the use case must allow this type of Blockchain to effectively take advantage of this benefit. Otherwise, it is unfair to make a comparison between BlockFlow and HyperFlow in terms of their costs.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The blog post was created from a master&#8217;s thesis. A detailed elaboration of this topic can be found <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.inovex.de\/de\/blockchain-basierte-abstimmung-zur-optimierung-von-vorausschauenden-wartungsmodellen-im-rahmen-des-foederierten-lernens\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">here<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span><strong>References<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[1] V. Mothukuri, R. M. Parizi, S. Pouriyeh, Y. Huang, A. Dehghantanha, and G. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Srivastava. \u201cA survey on security and privacy of federated learning.\u201c In: Future <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Generation Computer Systems 115 (Feb. 2021), pp. 619\u2013640. issn: 0167-739X. doi: <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">10.1016\/j.future.2020.10.007.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[2] H. Bae, J. Jang, D. Jung, H. Jang, H. Ha, H. Lee, and S. Yoon. \u201cSecurity and <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Privacy Issues in Deep Learning.\u201c In: arXiv:1807.11655 [cs, stat] (Mar. 2021). arXiv:<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">1807.11655.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[3] N. Bouacida and P. Mohapatra. \u201cVulnerabilities in Federated Learning.\u201c In: IEEE <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Access 9 (2021), pp. 63229\u201363249. issn: 2169-3536. doi: 10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">3075203.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[4] V. Mugunthan, R. Rahman, and L. Kagal. \u201cBlockFlow: An Accountable and Privacy-Preserving Solution for Federated Learning.\u201c In: arXiv:2007.03856 [cs, stat] (July 2020). arXiv: 2007.03856.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[5] Abadi, M., Chu, A., Goodfellow, I., McMahan, H. B., Mironov, I., Talwar, K., &amp; Zhang, L. (2016, October). Deep learning with differential privacy. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security (pp. 308-318).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[6] K. T. Chui, B. B. Gupta, and P. Vasant. \u201cA Genetic Algorithm Optimized RNN- LSTM Model for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Turbofan Engine.\u201c In: Electronics 10.33 (Jan. 2021), p. 285. doi: 10.3390\/electronics10030285.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[7] Y. Wu, M. Yuan, S. Dong, L. Lin, and Y. Liu. \u201cRemaining useful life estimation of engineered systems using vanilla LSTM neural networks.\u201c In: Neurocomputing 275 (Jan. 2018), pp. 167\u2013179. issn: 0925-2312. doi: 10.1016\/j.neucom.2017.05.063.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[8] S. Zheng, K. Ristovski, A. Farahat, and C. Gupta. \u201cLong Short-Term Memory Network for Remaining Useful Life estimation.\u201c In: 2017 IEEE International Conference on Prognostics and Health Management (ICPHM). June 2017, pp. 88\u201395. doi: <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">10.1109\/ICPHM.2017.7998311.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[9] A. Listou Ellefsen, E. Bj\u00f8rlykhaug, V. \u00c6s\u00f8y, S. Ushakov, and H. Zhang. \u201cRemaining useful life predictions for turbofan engine degradation using semi-supervised deep architecture.\u201c In: Reliability Engineering &amp; System Safety 183 (Mar. 2019), pp. 240\u2013251. issn: 0951-8320. doi: 10.1016\/j.ress.2018.11.027.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[10] H. V. D\u00fcd\u00fck\u00e7\u00fc, M. Tas\u0327k\u0131ran, and N. Kahraman. \u201cLSTM and WaveNet Implementation for Predictive Maintenance of Turbofan Engines.\u201c In: 2020 IEEE 20th International Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Informatics (CINTI). Nov. 2020, pp. 000151\u2013000156. doi: 10.1109\/CINTI51262.2020.9305820.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[11] A. Saxena and K. Goebel. \u201cTurbofan engine degradation simulation data set.\u201c In: NASA Ames Prognostics Data Repository (2008), pp. 878\u2013887.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[12] M. A. Rahman, M. S. Hossain, M. S. Islam, N. A. Alrajeh, and G. Muhammad. \u201cSecure and Provenance Enhanced Internet of Health Things Framework: A Blockchain Managed Federated Learning Approach.\u201c In: IEEE Access 8 (2020), pp. 205071\u2013205087. issn: 2169-3536. doi: 10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3037474.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[13] K. Wei, J. Li, M. Ding, C. Ma, H. H. Yang, F. Farokhi, S. Jin, T. Q. Quek, and H. V. Poor. \u201cFederated learning with differential privacy: Algorithms and performance analysis.\u201c In: IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 15 (2020), pp. 3454\u20133469.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[14] K. Kesrouani, H. Kanso, and A. Noureddine. \u201cA Preliminary Study of the Energy Impact of Software in Raspberry Pi devices.\u201c In: 2020 IEEE 29th International Conference on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises (WETICE). Sept. 2020, pp. 231\u2013234. doi: 10.1109\/WETICE49692.2020.00052.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[15] Coinbase. \u201cEthereum (ETH\/EUR) Preise, Charts und News: Coinbase\u201c. (Apr 2022). url: https:\/\/www.coinbase.com\/de\/price\/ethereum (visited on 19\/04\/2022).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">[16] Statista. \u201cIndustrial electricity prices including tax Germany 1998-2022\u201c. (Mar 2022). url: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/1050448\/industrial-electricity-prices-including-tax-germany\/ (visited on 19\/04\/2022).<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Federated learning allows a model to be learned from multiple participants without transferring the data to a central location. The approach promises to reduce privacy and latency risks but also has weaknesses such as data quality control and data security.\u00a0 In this article, we propose integrating a voting protocol with a permissioned blockchain to address [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":286,"featured_media":47195,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"inline_featured_image":false,"ep_exclude_from_search":false,"footnotes":""},"tags":[509,214,511,157,158,159],"service":[76],"coauthors":[{"id":286,"display_name":"Carlos Garcia Briones","user_nicename":"cgarcia"}],"class_list":["post-46291","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","tag-ai-2","tag-anomaly-detection","tag-artificial-intelligence-2","tag-blockchain","tag-distributed-ledger-technology","tag-dlt","service-artificial-intelligence"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin 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